13 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 117. 



T. GAIXDWAY, Chiifiif ISurrau. 



THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED RANGE 
AiXD NATIVE PASTURES. 



BY 



DAATD GRIFFITHS, 
Assistant A(juiculturist, Farm Managemknt Investigations. 



Issued DECEJunER lo, 1907. 




WASHINGTON: 

government Printing office. 

19 07. 



^■?Aos:>'^ 




Gass 3 f%^ 
Book_- 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY^ BULLETIN NO. 117. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of liareau. 



THE RESEEDING OF DEPEETED RANGE 
AND NAT1\'E PASTURES. 



BY 



DAVID GRIFFITHS, 
Assistant Agriculturist, Farm Management Investigations. 



TssiiKi) Dec'kmuer 13, 1UU7. 




WASHINGTON: 
government printing office. 

1907. 



^ 



y\- 



K 



\ 



BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. 

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. 

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods. 

Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. 

Investigations of Diseases of Fruits. Merton B. Waito, Pathologist in Charge. 

Laboratory of Forest Pathology, Haven Metcalf, Pathologist in Charge. 

Plant Life History Investigations, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge. 

Cotton and Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Archibald D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge. 

Corn Investigations, Charles P. Hartley, Physiologist in Charge. 

Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Thomas II. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge. 

iSo;7 Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge. 

Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. 

Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and Tea Culture Investigations, Rodney H. True, Physiologist 

in Charge. 
Physical Laboratory, Lyman J. Briggs, Physicist in Charge 
Crop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb, Expert in Charge. 
Taxonomic Investigbtions, Fredericlc V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. 
Farm Management Investigations, William .T. SpilLman, Agriculturist in Charge. 
Grain Investigations, Marli A. Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. 
Arlington Experimental Farm, Lee C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. 
Sugar Beet Investigations, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge. 
Western Agricultural Extension Investigations, Carl S. Scofneld, Agriculturist in Charge. 
Dry Land Agriculture Investigations, E. Charming Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge. 
Pomological Collections, Gustavus B. Bracljett, Pomologist in Charge. 

Field Investigations in Pomology, William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell, Pomologists in Charge. 
Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes, Superintendent. 
Vegetable Testing Gardens, William W. Tracy, sr.. Superintendent. 
Seed and Plant Introduction, DaVid Fairchild, Agricultural E,xplorer in Charge. 
Forage Crop Investigations, Charles V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge. 
Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge. 
Grain Standardization, John D. Shanahan, Expsrt in Charge. 

Subtropical Laboratory and Garden, Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist in Charge. 
Plant Introduction Garden, Chieo, Cal., August Mayer, Expert in Charge. 
South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex., Edward C. Green, Pomologist in Charge. 
Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La., Special Agent in Charge. 



Editor, J. E. Rockwell. 
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 



Faem Management Investigations. 

W.J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge. 
Scientific Staff.— F. G. Allison, Harmon Benton, D. A. Brodie, L. E. Carrier, J. S. Gates, 
J. S. Cotton, M. A. Crosby, L. G. Dodge, E. J. Glasson, David Griffiths, Byron Hunter, 
.0. K. McClelland, H. B. McClure, R. A. Oakley, W. A. Peck, C. E. Quinn, S. M. Tracy, 
C. W. Warburton, J. A. Warren, J. M. Westgate. 
117 



DEC r V!W 



LETTER OF TRANSMIHAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington, D. C, August 20, 1907. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend 
for pubHcation as Bulletin No. 117 of the series of this Bureau, the 
accompanying manuscript entitled '^The Reseedingof Depleted Range 
and Native Pastures," by Dr. David Griffiths, Assistant Agriculturist, 
Farm Management Investigations. 

This paper embodies the results of successful experiments in the 
reseeding of native pastures and points out the character of the 
regions wherein success may be expected from the use of seed fol- 
lowed by little or no cultivation. 

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, 

Chief of Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

117 s 



C () X T \l N T S 



Page. 

Introduction 7 

Popular conceptions of reseeding ranges 7 

Results accomplished 8 

Native species 8 

Cultivated species 11 

Introduced weedy species 15 

Character of s(>e(ling dependent upon nature of region 17 

Burning native pastures 18 

Cultivation 19 

Weeds in native pastures 21 

Summary 22 

Description of plates 24 

Index 25 

117 5 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page. 
Plate I. Improved and unimproved native meadows in northeastern Califor- 
nia. Fig. 1. — Timothy and redtop estal)lished without cultiva- 
tion. Fig. 2. — An unimproved valley similar to that shown in 

figure 1 24 

II. Central California ranges. Fig. 1. — A sedgy, weedy mountain 
meadow where timothy and redtop will succeed. Fig. 2. — Foot- 
hills where introduced brome-gi'asses have taken possession 24 

III. Native pastures in Kansas and Arizona. Fig. 1. — A native pasture 
in central Kansas where Kentucky bluegrass is gradually taking 
possession. Fig. 2. — A native pasture in Arizona during a favor- 
able season 24 

117 

6 



B. v. l.^sia. 



THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED RANGE AND 
NATIVE PASTURES 



INTRODUCTION. 

The most frequent inquiries referring to range management and 
improvement relate to the reseeding of native pastures wliich have 
been reduced in productiveness by neglect and mismanagement. 
The following |:)ages, based upon observations and investigations 
covering a period of ten years, give only a brief summary of informa- 
tion. The subject is important to the entire country, for native or 
seminative pastures are common even in thickly settled communities 
of the East; but the discussion herein relates primarily to what 
was once the great free-grass country west of the Missouri River, 
which even in its most thickly settled areas still ]>roduces much 
forage upon virgin soil. 

POPULAR CONCEPTIONS OF RESEEDING RANGES. 

The very subject of reseeding presupposes a lack of cultivation or 
other artificial means of increasing feed production. It is often dif- 
ficult to draw a distinction between native and tame pastures, for 
when any improvement is made in an artificial way through tillage 
or reseeding the pasture becomes a tame pasture in proportion to the 
tillage and seed used. For the purposes of this discussion a liberal 
interpretation is adopted to permit a discussion of any grade of 
pasture up to a thoroughly tilled one of tame grasses. 

The opinion is prevalent in range sections that any improvement 
in native pastures ought to be and must be made by simply sowing 
seed and giving it no attention other than to pasture the crop that 
it produces. In other words, that a grass, a shrub, or some other 
forage plant should be found which when scattered among native 
vegetation will supplant that vegetation, at least in part. It is 
expected that plants may be introduced which will be better adapted 
to the prevailing conditions than those which have found lodgment 
there and managed to develop, continually becoming better adapted 
to the surrounding environment through past centuries. While 
such an accomplishment is not at all impossible, the chances are 
10542— Bui. 117—07 2 7 



b RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

many to one against success in such a venture. Plants introduced 
through seeding and allowed to shift for themselves seldom succeed, 
and success is attained in such cases only when they have particular 
characteristics and are placed under peculiarly suitable conditions. 

RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 

The State agricultural experiment stations located in the stock- 
range sections, some independently and some in cooperation with 
the Department of Agriculture, have given much thought and atten- 
tion to the feature of range improvement by reseeding in all its 
phases. The Department alone in a single year gathered and dis- 
tributed nearly four tons of seed of native grasses, which was mostly 
used in experiments in the improvement of native pasture lands. A 
large quantity of seed of cultivated varieties of forage plants has 
been employed also, and various grades of cultivation, ranging from 
simply scattering seed to nearly thorough cultivation, have been 
resorted to. These lines of work have extended over a period of ten 
years or more with profitable results. 

NATIVE SPECIES. 

There is logic in the supposition that species growing under given 
conditions are better adapted to those conditions than introduced 
species and that they will thrive better when encouraged by scat- 
tering and by partially covering their seeds than introduced kinds 
until conditions are more or less changed. These changes may be 
brought about by the destruction of the native vegetation, by over- 
grazing, by thorough cultivation, or by any other means which inter- 
feres with the natural order of the development of the plants. In 
other words, when forage plants are introduced it is usually neces- 
sary to give them special care in order that they may be able to 
compete with native species. This applies to practically all culti- 
vated crops. There are certain notable exceptions to this general 
rule in certain special natural conditions, and it is these exceptions 
that are of especial interest. 

Acting upon the suggestion that the native species are best adapted 
to the natural conditions in which they are found, much time was 
spent by the State agricultural experiment stations and by the 
Department of Agriculture a few years ago in experimenting with 
the reseeding of native pastures with native species. Large quan- 
tities of native seed were gathered and planted under various con- 
ditions. 

There are many difficulties in the way of improving native pas- 
tures by the use of seed of native species, the chief obstacle being 
the difficulty of securing the required seed. Many, possibly the 

117 



RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 9 

majority, of our best native species of forage plants haA^e such poor 
seed habits that it is diliicuh to reduce tiie expense of gatliering 
them to an economic basis. There is usually no trouble in getting 
small quantities of seed and in groAnng the plants in conventional 
grass-garden plots upon an experimental basis and under thorough 
cultivation, but this is a very different thing from the reseeding of 
native pastures, with little or no cultivation. 

Another obstacle is the difliculty of judging the seasons properly. 
Seed is more likely to be collected during a favorable season when 
the crop is good, and it is th«n sown in the following year. The 
next season after a favorable one is more than likely not to be favor- 
able for seed germination. The fact is commonly lost sight of that, 
although one is placing the seed of native species under conditions 
more or 'less similar to those found in nature, when one gathers and 
sows seed upon uncultivated soil the chances are against its success. 
The likelihood of seed of perennial species of grasses growing under 
natural conditions is very small as a usual thing; and it is the per- 
ennials that are most valuable. To maintain a perennial species it 
is necessary for its seed to grow but seldom. Then when it is con- 
sidered that many species proi)agate vegetatively wc recognize how 
uncertain the chances are for reproduction from seed sown unless the 
soil receives some artificial treatment in the sha])e of cultivation for 
the subjugation of competing native plants. Our best cultivated pas- 
ture grasses to-day are Kentucky bluegrass for the North and Ber- 
muda grass for the South. But the propagation of these grasses from 
seed is far from satisfactorv, for under the most favorable range con- 
ditions it would take at least three or four \' ears to thoroughly estab- 
lish bluegrass. It is diflicult in the first place to procure the seed of 
native species; in the second place, the seed obtained is often of poor 
germinating equality, because many of the plants habitually get along 
without the use of seed, which they produce imperfectly; and, in the 
third place, it is difficult to sow the seed at the proper season, for 
in the arid West it is only in favorable seasons that conditions are 
suitable for seed germination. It may therefore happen that seed 
failing to germinate would have been successful if sown in a more 
favorable season. It will be readily perceived, therefore, why the list 
of native forage plants which have been successfully used, even on 
a small scale, in the renovation of native pastures is small, although 
there are many species, no doubt, that can be domesticated when 
serious attention is devoted to the subject. 

Upon the eastern slope of the Black Hills of South Dakota some 
farmers have improved their meadows by sowing seed of western 
wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale) which they collected from their 
hay crops. Here, however, in the main, good results are secured by 

U7 



10 KESEEDING DEPLETED EANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

irrigation. Water is commonly applied to raw prairie land, which 
in a short time, if the drainage is proper, will produce good crops of 
this grass to the exclusion of almost everything else. The grama 
grasses, especially, under this treatment disappear very rapidly 
before this species, which propagates by creeping rootstocks. Too 
much water or improper drainage, on the other hand, causes this 
western wheat-grass to be replaced in turn by rushes {Juncus spp.) 
and sedges ( Carex spp.), as is the case in many areas of Montana and 
Wyoming. This is especially noticeable in certain cities of South 
Dakota where artesian water is emjiloyed in excess upon lawns of 
native grasses. 

Something ma}^ be done with western wheat-grass in a small way 
to improve native pastures in some of the western prairie States if 
the seed is covered by harrowing and careful attention is paid to 
seeding in favorable seasons only. It is next to useless to sow without 
any cultivation, and with cultivation the expense would be prohib- 
itive except on a small scale where labor can be used for the work in 
slack times when not needed for other purposes, and even then it is 
quite probable that greater returns would be secured by placing the 
ground in a thorough state of cultivation and seeding to some well- 
tried tame grass. 

Bunch-grass {Agropyron spicatum) has been used successfully on 
a small scale upon denuded pastures in eastern Washington, but at 
almost prohibitive expense. Lands in this section once well stocked 
with this species recuperate slowly under protection from overgrazing, 
even without artificial seeding. 

A closely related species ( Elymus trlticoides) generally inhabits the 
low, moist, nonalkaline bottoms in the Great Basin country, but 
also extends into the interior valleys of California. Several unsuc- 
cessful attempts have been made to use this species, l^ut the writer 
considers all of the experiments known to him ill advised. This grass 
is adapted to low bottoms which receive at least one flooding each year. 
Its seed habits are first class, and it resembles western wheat-grass 
in both habit and general appearance. In many localities in north- 
eastern Nevada and southeastern Oregon this grass has spread to 
sagebrush land and produced good crops under the influence of partial 
irrigation in the shape of a single diversion of spring flood waters on 
the lower sagebrush areas along the grassy bottoms. This species and 
Poa lucida vie with each other for supremacy under such treatment. 

A number of ranchers in the Rocky Mountain and Great Basin 
regions have recorded successful attempts at growing giant rye-grass 
(Elymus condensatus) . The seed habits of this grass are good, but 
it is very coarse, and consequently in sections where there is a liberal 
supply of finer and less fibrous feeds it is not in favor. It is stoutly 



RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 11 

maintained by ranchers in some sections that stock will not eat it, 
but the common experience of stockmen shows that cattle eat what 
they have to eat. In many sections it is a liighly-prized species and is 
often cut for hay. It is very tenacious when thoroughly established 
and will grow in soil which is quite alkaline. 

The list of native species wliich have been successfully' used in 
reseeding or increasing the feed upon the range with a minimum of 
artificial treatment is small and confined almost entirely to the 
wheat and rye grasses previously mentioned. 

CULTIVATED SPECIES. 

There are a few species of cultivated forage plants which have 
been introduced successfully for the restoration and improvement 
of native pastures and meadows. In mountain meadows redtop 
(Agrostis alba) and timothy (PTileum ptxitense) are without doubt the 
most important. (See PI. I, figs. 1 and 2.) There are many localities, 
especially in the Rocky Mountain and the coast ranges, where native 
sedgy and weedy vegetation has been verj^ largely replaced by the 
judicious use of seed of these grasses. Remarkably good stands of 
both were to be seen in the Kootenai Mountains of Montana as early 
as 1897. These had been established by one or two seedings in late 
autumn with no cultivation whatever. Experiments in which the 
Department of Agriculture was interested conducted in 1897 with 
timothy in the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming were successful in 
producing a decided increase in the 3aeld of pastures at an altitude 
of 7,000 feet and also in creek bottoms at an altitude of 4,500 feet. 

The experience of some of the most successful live-stock owners 
in the United States furnishes ample proof of the value of redtop and 
timothy in moist situations. Both with partial tillage and with no 
tillage these men have successfully sown seed in quantities of a ton 
upon moist meadows around Steins Mountains in eastern Oregon. 

Some of the meadows established around the edges of the sinks 
above the alkaline soils by scattering the seed of redtop and timothy 
upon lands subsequently irrigated by spring flood waters have 
produced excellent permanent pastures of these two grasses, with 
little or no cultivation. In some cases where the grasses have been 
established along the upper courses of draws and creeks the seed has 
subsequently been slowly washed down the valley, producing gradu- 
ally a decided change in the meadows of the creek bottoms. Through- 
out the Rocky Mountain region especially these two grasses are 
widely scattered, having become disseminated from hay and other 
horse feed hauled into the mountains, as well as by systematic effort. 
It is generally well understood that these grasses are most promising 
for reseeding ranges, and many ranchers have made more or less 
systematic attempts to introduce them upon private holdings. 



12 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

In addition to these, red clover, white clover, and orchard grass 
have been used successfully in a more limited way in mountain 
meadows and upon cleared woodlands. 

Fall planting w^ill without doubt prove most advantageous in such 
situations on account of the difficulty of reaching the meadows early 
in the spring, as well as on account of the nature of the soil. It is a 
very noticeable fact that the ground dries out rapidly after the snows 
disappear in the spring in all the mountains of the extreme West 
and Southwest. The soil is very coarse and loose, and consequently 
dries out quickly. Sometimes the surface soil a few feet from a 
melting snowdrift is too dry for seed germination. Fall planting will 
then be most successful, for it will utilize the moisture to the greatest 
possible extent, causing the seed to germinate over the widest area 
possible. Care must be exercised to plant late in the autumn so that 
no germination will take place until spring. Seeding on the early 
snows is often a good practice, for then the seed, especially if it be 
timothy or alsike clover, is carried into the ground sufficiently to be 
covered. Redtop ought to be brushed or lightly harrowed, for its 
seeds do not cover as easily and are more likely to be blown away by 
the wind or to be washed away by the flood waters. 

The methods employed in introducing these grasses into mountain 
meadows vary greatly. Sometimes the seed is scattered upon the 
snow; at other times it is sown in autumn on comparatively dry 
ground or in the spring upon wet ground as the snow melts. The 
efficiency of the different methods w^ill depend largely upon the locality 
and the moisture conditions. On the whole, late fall seeding will prove 
most successful when no cultivation is practiced. Early spring sowing 
will, however, give good results if the ground remains moist enough 
for seed germination until the plants can become established. A 
great deal depends upon the altitude of the meadows to be seeded 
and the character of the soils of which they are composed. Harrow- 
ing with brush or with a spike-tooth harrow can usually be resorted 
to with profit, but further cultivation must.be done with good judg- 
ment if the topography and soil are such that erosion is likely to occur. 
Good results have been secured from all methods. Even when sown 
upon sedgy meadows with no cultivation, timothy and redtop espe- 
ciall}^ often supplant the native vegetation in very large measure, but 
usually the more sedgy portions remain permanently and the intro- 
duced grasses obtain control of the edges of the meadows in the more 
loose friable soils commonly found close to the willows, the redtop 
becoming more prevalent in the more moist situations. 

Indeed, the willow lands in mountain meadows are well adapted to 
the growth of timothy. There are considerable areas which could be 
very much improved in the quality of their feed if shrubby willows were 

117 



RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 13 

removed and timothy and redtoj) sown. Tlfe soil in these situations 
is always loose, porous, and rich in hunuis, and is moist the greater part 
of the year, furnishing- good conditions for the growth of these grasses. 
The growth of timothy upon willow lands, with little or no cultivation, 
is successfully carried on in the Okonogan ^"alle3' of Washington. 
Here it is a common practice to grub out the willow thickets and 
scatter timothy seed with no further preparation of the soil than to 
remove the willow stumps and leave the ground as smooth as possi- 
ble. In two or three years with proper care a good timothy hay 
meadow is obtained. The same treatment would transform many 
mountain willow areas into much improved pastures or meadows. 

The fact that the areas arc subjected to inundations in the spring 
is not always proliibitive, for timothy withstands cold running water 
very well. Instances have come imder the observation of the writer 
in eastern Oregon where timothy meadows have been flooded with 
shallow running water in the spring for a period of two weeks without 
apparent injur3^ 

iViiy work upon the extension of mountain meadows by the removal 
of the brush about the edges must be done with rare judgment and 
care, for the conditions are such that the temporary destruction of 
the brush cover of these areas will often lead to erosive action that 
will destroy the entire meadow. This is especially true of many of 
the small meadows of the Sierra Mountains of California, where con- 
siderable work has been done by the Department of Agriculture. 
(See PI. II, fig. 1.) Here it would be hazardous to destroy even the 
sedge turf, for it is underlain by a soil that erodes easily. In many 
cases plowing would result in an erosion that would drain and com- 
pletely destroy the meadow. Supplanting the sedgy vegetation, 
which is of less value, by easily introduced species which will furnish 
more feed with little or no cultivation is to be recommended in such 
situations. 

Redtop is of more importance in many places than timothy. It 
has the advantage of being adapted to moist situations. It is often 
difficult to determine whether a given meadow is better adapted to 
timothy or to redtop without a complete seasonal knowledge of the 
locality where the experiment is to be tried. Usually in every 
meadow some areas are better adapted to one than the other, and 
consequently the use of both in the improvement of native meadows 
is to be recommended. 

Redtop commonly does not make a showing as soon as timothy, 
but it lasts longer and gradually drives out the latter on all soils to 
which it is adapted. Its ability to extend its distribution by means 
of running rootstocks gives it an advantage. Of course it is not to 
be expected that either of these grasses will produce immediate 

117 



14 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

results when sown among native vegetation in this way without cul- 
tivation. The results come gradually. It is really a remarkable 
thing that cultivated plants should be able to compete at all with 
native vegetation in its native habitat. Redtop is more difficult to 
establish than timothy, mainly because of the difference in their 
seeds, the seeds of the latter being more easily covered than those of 
the former. Covering the seed is much more important with redtop 
than with timothy. If no cultivation is given redtop should be sown 
in the fall just before the first snows come, and this is probably the 
best time, all things considered, for timothy seeding as well. This is 
doubtless the surest way to get the seed into the ground sufficiently 
for germination to take place. Owing to the difficulty of judging 
accurately the areas which are best adapted to each crop, it is advis- 
able to sow a mixture of timothy and redtop. The first will make a 
showing earlier than the latter, but, especially in the moister situa- 
tions, will eventually be. supplanted by it. 

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) , a distinctive pasture grass, is 
exceedingly aggressive and is adapted to and is becoming firmly estab- 
lished in the eastern edge of the cattle count^" . It is working west- 
ward into the western plains region. (See PI. ill, fig. 1.) Its spread 
is due to no intentional assistance from man, but it is spreading, nev- 
ertheless, very rapidly under the grazing conditions obtaining in this 
region. The indications now are that all of the small draws and 
ravines of native pastures far into western Kansas and Nebraska will 
eventually be largely taken by this grass without any assistance. 
Farther east, in the brushy regions of Arkansas and Missouri, it 
spreads rapidly under the influence of such grazing as will keep in 
check the more aggressive native grasses and brush, and indeed is 
now the main pasture grass over large sections of this region, so firmly 
has it become established. 

It is entirely practicable to assist the spread of Kentucky bluegrass 
by seeding it upon uncultivated land. It should not be expected to 
furnish full stands in a short time. Indeed, it will take two, three, or 
four years to get a stand in favorable regions, and a proportionally 
longer time in other situations where the conditions of rainfall are less 
favorable. On the whole, fall seeding will probably give the best 
results, and light harrowing with a fine-tooth harrow will add to the 
success obtained. When there is sufficient rainfall in autumn to 
germinate the seed it will be profitable to sow then, if it can be done 
early enough to allow the grass time to become thoroughly established 
before the ground freezes; if not, then it should be seeded too late in 
the fall for germination during that season. In the western prairie 
States when it is desirable to supplant the native vegetation by blue- 
grass, the attempts should be first made in favored localities in creek 
m 



RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. 15 

and river bottoms and in draws and ravines where the lands are 
heavier and the moisture more abundant than upon the uplands. In 
central Kansas and Nebraska, and especially eastward, conditions are 
more favorable for success on the uplands still used for pasture 
purposes. 

On the whole, some of the standard forage plants mentioned have 
produced more permanent benefit in the improvement of native 
pastures and meadows than either of the other two classes. Their 
application, however, is limited to the conditions described. 

INTRODUCED WEEDY SPECIES. 

In certain .sections of the Ignited States aggressive annual plants 
have supplanted in a great measure the native vegetation and now 
furnish a large part of the feed on the uncultivated lands. Striking 
examples are found over large areas of California and ^Arizona and in 
the Columbia basin where the introduced plants are often much 
more abundant than the natives. 

It is a noticeable fact, however, that all of these introductions were 
purely accidental. All of the annual introduced weedy plants 
which are so prominent and man}^ of which are so important from a 
forage standpoint in the floras of the regions mentioned have been 
introduced without conscious effort, although by the agency of man. 

Most prominent among these is alfilerilla, which is supposed to have 
been introduced from the Mediterranean region of Europe, but 
which apparently finds a more congenial home in America than in its 
original habitat. It is now found in both high and low altitudes of 
western America from the Canadian border to the hotter regions of 
southern Mexico. It is only in limited localities, however, that it has 
gained prominence. The conditions necessary for its best develop- 
ment appear to be mild, moist winter weather. Such conditions are 
furnished in portions of California especially. In southern Arizona 
the winters are mild enough, but the moisture is often lacking or 
improperly distributed, so that the crops produced fluctuate greatly. 
In some seasons small crops of hay of this plant may be cut in favor- 
able desert areas, but usually it furnishes but indifferent grazing. 
The crop of the spring of 1906 was the heaviest ever known. Its 
range of adaptability is shown by the fact that it matures in April 
upon the levels of the Salt River valley, while it may not mature until 
June upon the higlier levels of the Colorado slope of the San Francisco 
Mountains. (See PI. Ill, fig. 2.) 

No experiments yet conducted have been successful in introducing 
alfilerilla upon the ranges and having it care for itself and spread with 
any degree of rapidity, although many attempts have been made. 
Seedings made in the Santa Rita Mountains in the summer of 1906 



16 . EESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

germinated quite well the following- winter, the first time, it is believed, 
that even this much has been definitely accomplished. The plant 
has, however, been spread apparently by sheep, and some ranchmen 
have made systematic efi"orts to spread it by methods of grazing, but 
there is very little, if an}^, definite knowledge at present as to the 
best w^ay to handle the plant. The probability is that if seed is 
secured and scattered before a favorable season, success may be had in 
spreading it. The main consideration is to scatter the seed before a 
season favorable to its germination. 

Wild oats (Avena spp.), of which there are two species of impor- 
tance in California, forms, with alfilerilla, the most important feed 
in many sections. Like alfilerilla, little success has been had in 
attempts to spread either of the species on the range, although one 
of them occurs in abundance in cultivated lands in many sections of 
the United States and in other parts of the world. One of the 
species is sometimes found in the Huachuca, Santa Catalina, and 
other mountains of southern Arizona. Seed sown in the wSanta Rita 
Mountains germinated in the winter of 1907 for the first time, 
although it was so\vn there on several previous occasions. Seeding 
with this grass will succeed better when it is covered with a harrow. 

Besides the grasses previously mentioned there is a group of brome- 
grasses {Bromus spp.) which have become exceedingly abundant in 
the Pacific coast country. These species furnish, on the whole, 
rather poor feed, but on account of their aggressiveness they are 
of a great deal of importance. The feed is of low grade for several 
reasons. These grasses mature in early summer and like nearly all 
annuals are of low nutritive value after maturity. The seeds of 
some species are very annoying to stock, especially sheep, and even 
when young, green, and succulent, the plants are pulled up by the roots 
and are consec^uently not easily grazed by stock. These brome- 
grasses have invaded the coast territory by the assistance of man, 
but in spite of his conscious intentions. While they furnish con- 
siderable feed, it is not only of an inferior quality, but some of the 
species cause considerable direct injury through crowding out plants 
of more value. (See PI. II, fig. 2.) The shepherd has to remove 
his flocks from the tucolote (Bromus maximus) areas of California 
when the seeds ripen, on account of the injury done to the feet, 
mouths, and eyes of his flocks by the sharp-pointed seeds of these 
grasses. On the whole, it is doubtful whether the introduction of 
this species has not been a positive detriment to the stock interests 
of California, The crowding out of other plants and the injury done 
to stock in many cases at least more than counterbalance the value 
of the feed produced by it. In the same category with tucolote 
may be mentioned wall-barley (Hordeum murinum) which, when 

117 



CHARACTER OF SEEDING 'DEPENDENT UPON RP:GI0N. 17 

properly handled, makes a fair quality of hay and pasture, but is 
troublesome in meadows if allowed to mature before being cut. 

To this group of aggressive weedy annuals belongs the Russian 
thistle, which is such a menace in the ])rairie States upon cultivated 
lands. In portions of the Southwest, especially along the Santa Fe 
Railway in New Mexico and Arizona, it is spreading rapidly. While 
it is pernicious in the cultivated plains regions mentioned, it adds 
somewhat to the forage supply and probably interferes very little 
with valuable native species in the arid regions of small forage pro- 
duction. 

CHARACTER OF SEEDING DEPENDENT UPON NATURE OF 

REGION. 

To one who is familiar with the range country in general there 
are evident principles involved which can not but be recognized as 
fundamental in mtroductions of grasses of the kind considered in 
these pages. 

The introduced plants which have become conspicuous upon 
uncultivated sodded lands of this country are nmch less numerous 
than those which have become established upon unsodded lands. 
The plants which establish themselves in each section differ very 
radically in their habits of growth. 

The only introduced forage plant which has become at all con- 
spicuous and aggressive in the prairie States in competition with the 
native plants is Kentucky bluegrass, wliich is a peremiial and spreads 
of its own accord by running rootstocks rather than by seed. The 
plants wliich have become established in the unsodded, uncultivaitd 
Southwest and in the Columbia Basin are annuals recj[uiring but a 
short period of growth for their development and having good seed 
habits. The Russian thistle, some of the mustards (Sisymhrium spp. 
and Bmssica spp.), and other weeds are well established in cultivated 
fields, but they do not compete at all with native species. They per- 
sist in neglected fields and upon the prairies to some extent, but only 
in gopher knolls and other partially cultivated situations. They do 
not compete with the native vegetation on untouched prairie soils. 
On the other hand , no introduced perennials have become established 
and aggressive upon the unsodded soils of the Southwestern States. 
The nearest approach to their establishment is in the case of Bermuda 
grass {Cynodon dactylon) and Johnson grass (SorgJium liala/pense) , 
but they become conspicuous only in favored localities and mostly 
in cultivated or partially cultivated fields and moist situations which 
are capable of being, if not actually, sodded. 

It seems, therefore, that the plants which have the best chances of 
becoming established without cultivation in the unsodded south- 
western soils are what are termed weedy annuals with good seed 

117 



18 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGTE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

habits. As illustrations ma}^ be mentioned those which have become 
conspicuous oA^er large areas, such as the brome-grasses, wild oats, 
and alfilerilla. The chances of introducing plants which will become 
aggressive on uncultivated sodded lands are much less than on 
unsodded areas. 

The two t}^es of regions discussed in these pages are so entirely 
different in their vegetative characteristics that it is difficult even to 
compare them. One has normally a ground cover with a thick mat 
of plant roots in the greater part of the surface soil, while the other is 
very largely devoid of vegetation. During a portion of the year in 
the latter situations the vegetation is less dense and usually occurs 
in scattering bunches when perennial, with considerable vacant 
space between; and when annual it produces a very irregular crop, 
which grows only in favorable situations in normal years. The regions 
which are largely devoid of vegetation, it would seem, are better 
adapted to the growth of annual plants whose seeds may fall upon 
unoccupied areas and by their special contrivances for planting 
themselves become incorporated with the soil without the interfer- 
ence of grass and other roots which occur in a sodded region. 

Again, the imsodded Southwest, unlike the sodded northern 
plains, has different relations between its seasons of moisture and 
heat. The moist winter seasons here admit plants which will grow 
at comparatively low temperatures. The moisture is of such short 
duration that plants must pass through the vegetative state and 
mature seed in a comparatively short time, or else they will be 
destroj^ed by the following drought. Ordinary herbaceous plants 
(valuable under grazing) are therefore more likeh' to be annuals 
here than perennials, for it is only those wliich have some special 
contrivance for water reserve that are able to withstand the hot drj^ 
season. The balance between conditions which produce annuals 
and those which produce perennials is, however, apparently slight. 
Upon low desert mesas may be found shrubs and annual plants almost 
entirely, while in the foothills, at slightly higher elevations, perennials 
and shallow-rooted plants, such as grasses, are abundant, although 
seldom producing even the semblance of a sod. The soil conditions 
are also decidedly different in the sodded and unsodded regions, which, 
without doubt, has a marked influence upon the nature of the turf. 
In the unsodded areas the soil is much younger, generally coarser, 
and lacking in humus. 

BURNING NATIVE PASTURES. 

There are certain regions where the burning of native pastures at 
regular intervals has been practiced for many years with apparently 
little injury. Indeed, there appears to be but little question that 

117 



CULTIVATION. 1 9 

this practice lias been beneficial in some instances, though it would 
be most unfortunate in the present range regions. In some of the 
Eastern and Southern States, especially where the brome sedges 
{Andropogon spp.) are an important factor in the vegetation of old, 
permanent, and native pastures, it is doubtful whether any other 
method of handling w^ould prove as productive. These grasses pro- 
duce strong, wiry, branching culms in late summer, which if left 
unburned or uncut would make it nearly impossible for stock to secure 
the young growth in tlie spring, while the growth of the previous year 
is of no value. 

As far west as central Kansas it is a common practice to burn 
pastures periodically. So far west, however, this practice is very ques- 
tionable because of the large numbers of other grasses which are 
injured by such treatment. The gramas (JBouteloua spp.), which are 
an important constituent of native pastures, from the eastern line of 
the Dakotas westward especially, are very readily injured by burn- 
ing, especially when the ground is dry, as it usually is in autumn in 
this region. It is a matter of common observation that native pas- 
tures where this ])ractice obtains which have been repeatedly burned 
are very much reduced in the c^uantity of blue grama (Boutdoua 
oligostachya) which they produce, while the broom sedges {Andropo- 
gon spp.) produce as well as ever unless the pastures have been nuich 
overstocked. When burning is practiced it should be done when the 
ground is moist or frozen, so that as little injury as possible may be 
done to the roots of the grasses. The practice is a necessary evil at 
best. Mowing should be resorted to in removing the old dead stems 
of the species of Andropogon in preference to burning whenever it is 
possible. 

The burning of native })astures has no application to the general 
open range country. 

CULTIVATION. 

Considerable has been written concerning the beneficial efl^ects of 
cultivation upon native pastures, but the practice has no application 
except upon small pastures in productive regions. A pasture requir- 
ing 20 acres to support a mature bovine animal for one year can 
not be profitably given even a light cultivation. Whether lands are 
benefited by a light harrowing or disking depends entirely upon the 
nature of the schI and the grasses composing the native vegetation. 
Loosening the soil lightly with a disk or fine-tooth harrow has been 
proved to be beneficial in the prairie States of South Dakota, Kansas, 
and Nebraska, and in other States farther east. Upon unsodded terri- 
tory in Arizona, where the Department of Agriculture in cooperation 
with the Territorial University has experimented for several years 
along this line, disking has proved actually detrimental. A large part 



20 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

of the sparse perennial vegetation was destroyed by the disking, and 
this effect was noticeable for about two j^ears. The plants which 
escaped killing by the disk were larger than common, but there was 
really less feed produced the succeeding season than on uncultivated 
lands adjoining. The use of a fine-tooth harrow on these lands pro- 
duced a slightly increased yield, but not enough by any means to pay 
for the labor. The fine-tooth harrow loosened the soil slightly without 
destroying the vegetation. 

In a large section of the prairie region, from the Dakotas southward, 
ground allowed to run back before the sod has been thoroughly sub- 
dued invariably comes up to a very greatly increased stand of western 
wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale) without any seed being sown. 
Disking here always produces increased yields of grass, and the 
pastures being small and productive, the increase will compensate for 
the expense. Some experiments conducted by the Kansas Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station show conclusively the benefits to be derived 
from the cultivation of native pastures in the vicinity of Manhattan. 

Mr. W. J. Tod broke a 60-acre piece of prairie of raw blue-joint 
(Andropogon sp.) in March, 1884. That same season he took off a 
small crop of millet. In the autumn the ground was back-set and 
seeded to clover, timothy, bluegrasses, and orchard grasses. It is 
well known that breaking land in March in this region does not kill 
native grasses well. The result was that although the tame grasses 
supplemented the native feeds for a number of years — and persist 
even yet — it was the native grasses that were especially improved by 
the cultivation. It is estimated that this area has produced ever 
since an average increase of 50 per cent in forage over the untouched 
land surrounding, and people who put up hay for hire in the vicinity 
are willing to harvest this area for 25 cents a ton less than the sur- 
rounding country. But this region is productive. The land will 
support continuously and maintain its productiveness at the rate of 
one bovine animal to 4 acres for the summer grazing season. 
Here grazing is carried on during the summer season only, for the 
grasses do not cure well on account of the fall rains. In such a 
region the cultivation of lands held in native pasture can be made 
profitable. Indeed, a gain of 50 per cent can often be made, but, 
as stated, when the carrying capacity is low partial cultivation will 
not pay. 

In a large part of the range region cultivation is actually impos- 
sible owing to the roughness or stony character of the country. In 
some sections the soils are so sandy that loosening them would cause 
drifting. Again, in some mountain meadow regions the soil is of 
such a nature that it is likely to be washed badl}^ when once the sur- 
face is disturbed. 

117 



WEEDS IN NATIVE PASTUKES. 21 

WEEDS IN NATIVE PASTURES 

In connection with native pastures the term weed is of very uncer- 
tain meaning, for what is considered a weed in one section is often a 
vahiable forage plant in another. It is a common sa^ang upon the 
stock ranges that a steer will eat what he is obliged to eat. As an 
illustration may be mentioned the Mexican poppy (Eschscholtzia 
mexicana) of the Southwest. This would scarcely be considered a 
forage plant of any value whatever by one unfamiliar with southwest- 
ern conditions. However, one can not but be impressed with the 
amount of feeding done upon it by stock in southern Ai'izona. In 
the vicinity of a large inclosure in the Santa Rita Mountains this plant 
is grazed to the ground by cattle, while it grows to a foot or more in 
height in the protected area and can be recognized \vithin this area 
by the brilliant color of its bloom thirty miles away. It would ordi- 
narily be considered of some value as a sheep feed, but it is not a 
weed in relation to cattle by any means. 

In productive native pastures of the Middle West or the central 
plains region certain plants, mainly of the golden-rod and sunflower 
families, often become quite troublesome in overgrazed areas. In 
the North these are represented by the golden-rod (Solidago rigida) ; 
farther south by several species of golden-rod and sunflower; and from 
Oklahoma southward into southern Texas by the broom-weed {Ani- 
yhiachyris dracJiunculoides) . These plants assist in the demands 
made for burning pastures in some sections spoken of elsewhere; 
but a more effectual way of handling them is to mow them when in 
early bloom. This is extensively practiced in Kansas and Nebraska 
with good results. The plants here mentioned, which stock will not 
eat, are all natives which become troublesome under the artificial con- 
ditions brought about by handling stock upon native lands. There 
are but few introduced weeds which are common upon the stock 
ranges that are decidedly injurious. The brome-grasses, alfilerilla, 
wild oats, and others have been mentioned as being of decided value. 
Even the Russian tliistle (Salsola kali-tragus), originally introduced 
into the prairie region where it never becomes troublesome in native 
pastures, is spreading in northern New Mexico and Ai-izona, but it is 
of some value upon these desert lands. In mountain regions there 
are several perennial weeds which do considerable damage and appear 
to increase with constant grazing. As examples may be mentioned 
dandelion {Taraxacum sp.), false hellebore (Veratrum sp.), yarrow 
(Achillea sp.), flag (Iris sp.), and Wyethia sp. Even some of these are 
of some value as sheep feed. These all grow in mountain pastiu'es 
and liigh valleys. Some of them can be handled by breaking up the 
ground and sowing to timothy and redtop. Others grow on lands 
which can not be cultivated, and it is doubtful whether they can 

117 



22 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

be reduced by any practicable economic methods. On the edges of 
mountain meadows where the moisture is sufficient cuhivation can 
be appHed with economic benefit where the lands are under private 
control. 

To be brief, what can be done depends upon the locality and the 
conditions. In favored localities it will pay to resort to some of the 
methods mentioned in the preceding pages. Where the carr3dng 
capacity of the lands is low no methods of eradication of weeds 
will pay for the labor involved. All that can be done is to get out 
of the land all that it produces of valuable plants without the abuse 
of overgrazing and to utilize the weeds if it can be done, if not by 
cattle then possibly by sheep or goats. It must be borne in mind 
that the really troublesome range weeds are few in number and 
locally distributed and that a large percentage of the feed upon the 
stock ranges to-day is produced by weeds. 

SUMMARY. 

(1) The introduced forage plants which have thus far become 
important upon range pastures in this country are few in number 
and without exception accidental in introduction. 

(2) Profitable partial cultivation of native pastures must be con- 
fined to productive areas in regions of sufficient rainfall to permit at 
least the occasional cultivation of some of the hardier crops. 

(3) The areas where reseeding methods on an economic basis are 
applicable extend to the western plains and are scattered through- 
out the mountains in meadows, high valleys, and other situations 
where the requisite moisture occurs. 

(4) Care should be exercised in the cultivation of moist mountain 
meadows lest the breaking of the turf should result in destructive 
erosion. 

(5) The most promising forage plants for the improvement of 
native pastures are Kentucky bluegrass as far west as the western 
plains region and as far south as the Bermuda and Johnson grass lands, 
and timothy and redtop for mountain meadows, high valleys, and 
other favorable situations having a loose friable soil containing a good 
supply of humus. Red, white, and alsike clovers and orchard grass 
are of value locally. These can be established with a minimum of 
cultivation. Seed may be sown either in late autumn or as the snow 
goes off in the spring. 

117 



PLATES. 



23 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 

Plate I. Improved and unimproved native meadows in northeastern California. 
Fig. 1. — Timothy and red top established without cultivation in one of the high 
valleys of northeastern California. Fig. 2. — An unimjiroved valley similar to 
that shown in figure 1. If the willows were cleared off and timothy and redtop 
sown they would take possession up to the sagebrush shown in the foreground. 

Plate II. Central California ranges. Fig. 1. — A sedgy, weedy mountain meadow 
where timothy and redtop will succeed, but the turf must not be destroyed, for 
erosion would completely drain the meadow. Fig. 2. — Foothills where intro- 
duced brome-grasses have taken possession. Some of these are valuable; others 
are really an injury to the range. 

Plate III. Native pastures in Kansas and Arizona. Fig. 1. — A native pasture in 
central Kansas where Kentucky bluegrass is gradually taking possession. It 
appears first in such draws and depressions as are shown in this illustration. Fig. 
2. — A native pasture in Arizona during a favorable season. Mexican poppy and 
Indian wheat make a good growth. Alfilerilla is spreading here gradually of its 
own accord. Experiments thus far have failed to produce economic results here. 
117 
24 



Bui, 1 17, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept, of Agriculture, 



Plate I. 




Fig. 1.— Timothy and Redtop Established Without Cultivation. 




Fig. 2.— An Unimproved Valley Similar to that Shown in Figure 1. 

IMPROVED AND UNIMPROVED NATIVE MEADOWS IN NORTHEASTERN 

CALIFORNIA. 



1 17. Bureau of Plant Industry U S Dept of Agriculture. 



Plate II. 




Fig. 1.— a Sedgy, Weedy Mountain Meadow Where Timothy and Redtop Will 

Succeed. 




Fig. 2.— Foothills Where Introduced Brome-grasses Have Taken PossEssioh 
CENTRAL CALIFORNIA RANGES. 



^f Plant Industry, U S Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate III. 




Fig. 1.— a Native Pasture in Central Kansas Where Kentucky Bluegrass is 
Gradually Taking Possession. 




Fig. 2.— a Native Pasture in Arizona During a Favorable Season. 
NATIVE PASTURES IN KANSAS AND ARIZONA. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Achillea sp., troublesome weed in jiastures, control 21-22 

Agriculture, Department, work in re^eeding depleted ranges and i)astures.. 8, 11, 13 

Agropyron occidentale, use on Black II ills, South Dakota 9, 20 

spicatum, use on denuded pastures, eastern Washington 10 

Agrostis alba. See Redtop. 

Alfilerilla, introduction, climate adaptation, and spread 15-18, 18 

Amphiachyris dracliunculoides, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21 

Andropogon spp. , effect of l)urning pastures 19 

Arizona, alfilerilla, use and spread 15-16 

Avena spp., use for pasture in California and Arizona 16 

Bermuda grass, establishment in pastures. Southwestern States 17 

Blue joint, cultivation, beneficial effects 20 

Bouteloua oligostachya, injury by burning pastures 19 

Brome-grasses, use as pasture on Pacific coast, injurious qualities 16 

sedges, effect of burning pastures 19 

Bromus niaximus, injurious to sheep 16 

spp., abundance on Pacific coast, injuriour! to stock interests 16 

Broom weed, tr()u})lesome in pastures, control 21 

Bunch grass, use on denuded pastures, eastern Washington 10 

Burning native pastures - 1 8-19 

California, alfilerilla, use and spread 15 

use of wild oats and brome-grasses 16 

Clover, red and white, use on mountain meadows 12 

Cultivation, pasture, beneficial effects 1 9-20 

Cynodon dactylon, establishment in pastures in Southwestern States 17 

Dandelion, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

Disking pastures, injurious effects on unsodded ground 20 

western wheat-grass, beneficial effects 20 

Elymus condensatus, use for pasture, seed habits, and quality 10-11 

triticoides, use in California valleys, seed habits, and spread 10 

Erosion of mountain lands, danger in cultivation of meadows 13, 20 

Eschscholtzia mexicana, use for pasture in Southwest 21 

Experiment stations. State, work in reseeding depleted ranges and pastures. . . 8, 20 

Fall planting of pasture lands, methods and advantages 12, 14 

Flag, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

Golden-rod, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21 

Grama, blue, injury by burning pastures 19 

Grass, blue joint, cultivation, beneficial effects 20 

bunch, use on denuded pastures, eastern Washington 10 

giant rye, use for pasture lands, seed habits, and quality 10-11 

orchard, use on mountain meadows 12 

western wheat, use in Black Hills, South Dakota 9-10, 20 

117 25 



26 RESEEDING DEPLETED RANGE AND NATIVE PASTURES. 

Page. 

GraiBses, cultivated specie>s, use in improving meadows and pastures 11-15 

native species, use in reseeding depleted pastures 8-11 

jjerennial, difficulty of securing seed 8-9 

seed, distribution by Department of Agriculture 8 

Harrowing native pastures, effects 19-20 

Hellebore, false, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

Hordeum murinum, value as hay, injurious qualities 16-17 

Introduction to bulletin 7 

Iris sp., troublesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

Johnson grass, establishment in pastures in Southwestern States 17 

Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, experiments in cultivating native 

pastures 20 

Kentucky bluegrass, value for pasture and spread into western regions 14-15, 17 

Meadows, mountain, use of clovers and orchard grass 12 

value of redtop and timothy 11, 12-13, 22 

Montana, use of redtop and timothy on mountain meadows 11 

Mountain meadows, use of clovers and orchard grass 12 

value of redtop and timothy 11, 12-18, 22 

Mowing, advantage over burning pastures _ . . 19 

Oats, wild, use for pasture in California and Arizona 16 

Orchard grass, use on mountain meadows 12 

Oregon, use of redtop on mountain meadows 11 

Pastures, cultivation, beneficial effects 19-20 

native, burning 18-19 

reseeding with native species 8-1 1 

cultivated species 1 1-15 

Perennial grasses, difficulty of gathering seed 9 

Phleum pratense. See Timothy. 

Plates, description 24 

Plowing mountain meadows, danger of erosion 13, 20 

Poa pratensis, value for pasture, spread into western plains region 14-15 

Poppy, Mexican, use for pasture in Southwest 21 

Range reseeding, popular conceptions 7-8 

Redtop, adaptation to moist situations 12,13 

use in sinks above alkaline soils under irrigation 11 

value and adaptation to mountain meadows 11, 12-13, 22 

Reseeding ranges, popular conceptions 7-8 

Results accomplished with native species 8-11 

cultivated species 11-15 

introduced weedy species 15-17 

Russian thistle, use for pasture, injurious qualities 17, 21 

Rye-grass, giant, seed habits, quality, and use for pasture lands 10-11 

Salsola kali-tragus, use for pasture, injurious qualities 17, 21 

Seed, grasses, distribution by Department of Agriculture 8 

perennial grasses, difficulty of securing 9 

Seeding, character dependent upon nature of region 17-18 

grass on snow in mountain meadows 12 

Sheep grazing, means of spreading alfilerilla 16 

injuries from pasturing on Bromus maximus, or tucolote 16 

Sinks above alkaline soils, use of redtop and timothy under irrigation 11 

Solidago rigida, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21 

Sorghum halapense, establishment in pastures in Southwestern States 17 

117 



INDEX. 27 

Page. 

South Dakota, use of western wheat-grass in Black Hills 9-10, 20 

Spring seeding of mountain meadows 12 

Sunnnary of bulletin 22 

Taraxacum sp. , troublesome weed in jjastures, I'Oiitrol 21 

Thistle, Russian 17, 21 

Timothy on willow lands in Okonogan Valley, Washington 13 

use in sinks above alkaline soils under irrigation 11 

val ue and adaptation to mountai n meadows 1 1 , 12-1 3, 22 

Tucolote, injurious to sheep 16 

Veratrum sp. , troublesome weed in pastinvs, control 21-22 

Wall-barley, value as hay and injurious qualities 16-17 

Washington, eastern, use of bunch-grass on denuded j)astures ... 10 

Okonogan Valley, use of timothy on willow lands 13 

Weeds in native pastures, use as feed 21-22 

troublesome in pastures, methods of control 21-22 

Weedy species of forage plants, introduction and spread 15-17, 18 

Wheat-grass, western, use on Black Hills, South Dakota 9-10, 20 

Willow lands, adaptation to timothy 12-13 

Wyoming, timothy pastures, yield 11 

Wyethia sp., trou])lesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

Yarrow, troublesome weed in pastures, control 21-22 

117 

o 



LEMr'O?^ 



Eli. 

iZ^L?" CONGRESS 



